• learn about their new society and language; 

• develop their English skills; 

• improve their interpersonal skills; 

• establish networks and social capital;  

• increase sense of importance and self-worth; 

• engage with and contribute to society; 

• acquire knowledge regarding Australian culture; 

• increase understanding and knowledge of local community needs; 

• build social relations and develop a sense of belonging 

• facilitating easier entrance into the labour market; 

• improving communicative skills crucial for entering the labour market 

• including the volunteering experience in the immigrants’ resumés when applying for work 

• Definition of volunteering and its benefits 

• Characteristics of newly arrived migrants and specific benefits from volunteering 

• Focus on the process of acculturation (social integration) 

• Language skill development 

• Group/social activities 

• Australian culture and work-culture 

• Building qualifications connected with future employment through volunteering. 

Literature Review - International students’ cross-cultural challenges

Language Barriers 

International students have a number of challenges in adjusting to academic life abroad, but by far the greatest barrier reported in the literature is language (Akanwa 2015; Barton et al. 2022; Rivas, Hale, and Burke 2019). When entering higher education in English-speaking countries they are required to pass an English test – in Australia, IELTS (International English Language Testing System) – but this does not necessarily equate with proficiency. Students may struggle to pass the test, making several attempts, and then be left, for example, with gaps in listening comprehension, oral proficiency or the use of everyday English (Akanwa 2015; Koo, Baker, and Yoon 2021; Skyrme 2007). Specific linguistic challenges include adjusting to local accents, colloquialisms and slang (Ammigan, Veerasamy, and Cruz 2023; Barton et al. 2022), as well as academic writing tasks (Elliot, Reid, and Baumfield 2016). 

Social isolation 

Language ability impacts on students’ social engagement. Those with poorer English report decreased social connectedness and more adjustment difficulties (Aladegbaiye, De Jong, and Beldad 2022; Koo, Baker, and Yoon 2021). Lack of social engagement, in turn, correlates with poor academic outcomes (Fontaine and Todd 2011). Language barriers and cultural differences create “a feeling of being outsiders and nonbelonging”, particularly for Asian students, who find it easier to make friends with those from their own country or with other international students “due to shared common experiences and cultural understandings” (Cena, Burns, and Wilson 2021, 819, 823). In one Australian study only 22% of international students reported making friends with local students and only 35% felt part of the university community (Arkoudis et al. 2018). Loneliness and isolation often result (Elliot, Reid, and Baumfield 2016; Laufer 2018; Soong 2013).  

Academic challenges 

Of the many challenges that international students need to overcome to succeed academically, the disparity between the education system in their home country and that in the host country creates a major hurdle. Academic norms, rules and expectations are often unspoken and unwritten (Laufer 2018). Taking part in open-ended discussions, bringing one’s own perspective to a topic, and group work may create anxiety and take time to master (Akanwa 2015; Hertzum and Hyldegard 2019). Chinese and South-East Asian students, in particular, often find difficulty with critical evaluation and critical writing, their prior learning strategies, such as memorisation, conflicting with what is now expected of them (Cena, Burns, and Wilson 2021). Students from these cultures experience more difficulties than other international students with respect to language, homesickness, and social and academic adjustment (Cena, Burns, and Wilson 2021). 

International student volunteering and community engagement

Volunteering is defined as “time willingly given for the common good and without financial gain” (Volunteering Australia 2022, 5). Australia has a strong tradition of volunteering: 29.5% of the population volunteered formally with an organisation or group in 2019, with youth volunteering (15-24 year olds) only slightly less at 28.8% (Volunteering Australia 2021, 2022).  

Volunteering as holistic learning

Volunteering provides a learning experience for students, with the community becoming a partner in the process (Fontaine and Todd 2011). Students are engaged in experiential learning, or learning by doing (Dewey 1938), within a community of practice (Lave and Wenger 1991). Student volunteers undergo an “apprenticeship” to the practices of the organisation through social interaction within a real-world context. The volunteering experience is holistic, with the workplace encountered in its full complexity, rather than as atomised items of educational content (Webster-Wright, 2009. Students, above all, acquire soft skills during volunteering. Because these skills are developed through practice, they are gained more effectively by volunteering than by academic study (Khasanzyanova 2017).  

Authentic communication

One of the most important soft skills for international students is communication. Volunteering has been shown to provide them with a platform to practise their language skills in an authentic context; to improve their English language proficiency and build confidence in speaking; and to acquire functional and situational language pertaining to the community of practice of their volunteer organisation, including professional vocabulary, idioms and politeness terms (Andrew 2011; Manguvo, Whitney, and Chareka 2013; Valencia-Forrester and Backhaus 2023). They learn “norms and values and other codes of behaviour” and how to “communicate in a culturally appropriate way” (Manguvo, Whitney, and Chareka 2013, 123).

Employability

Enhancing employability is often a major motive for student volunteers. Work skills that international students acquire through volunteering represent a mixture of job-specific knowledge and soft skills associated with the workplace. These include learning about their future profession; reconstructing their professional identity; acquiring new work habits, interview and telephone skills, management and service skills; learning how to perform administrative tasks and use office equipment; and learning tenacity in following things through (Andrew 2011; Manguvo, Whitney, and Chareka 2013; Soong 2013). International students value “the opportunity to work and learn new skills … observing procedures in the workplace … see how various companies operate … actually performing in real life” (Barton et al. 2022, 786).

Friendship and social inclusion

Unlike the university environment, where many international students fail to make friends with locals, as volunteers in an organisation they mostly report achieving social inclusion and a sense of belonging (Manguvo, Whitney, and Chareka 2013). Interaction, connection and friendship are seen by international students as benefits of volunteering: “Engaging with others, exchanging ideas, having a social experience, networking and getting to know more people” (Kwenani and Yu 2018, 36). In Australia the multicultural diversity of the workplace fosters collaboration and friendship, and is a positive factor in encouraging international students to ask for help when needed (Barton et al. 2022). 

Perhaps this sense of inclusion contributes to the boost in self-confidence reported by many international student volunteers, their pride in having their skills valued, and their satisfaction in acquiring new skills and learning more about the culture of their host country (Andrew 2011; Barton et al. 2022; Kwenani and Yu 2018; Manguvo, Whitney, and Chareka 2013). The intrinsic altruism of volunteering gives international students a sense of self-validation and provides a reciprocal reward by contributing to students feeling good and proud (Kwenani and Yu 2018; Manguvo, Whitney, and Chareka 2013).